Sugar – From Photosynthesis to the Modern Diet

Foundational Texts on Carbohydrates and Energy

Alberts, B., Johnson, A., & Lewis, J. et al. (2014). Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science.
Explores the molecular structure and energy roles of glucose in cellular metabolism.

Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Møller, I. M., & Murphy, A. (2015). Plant Physiology and Development. Sinauer Associates.
Discusses glucose synthesis through photosynthesis and its foundational role in plant and human energy systems.

Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L., & Stryer, L. (2015). Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman.
Examines the structural differences between alpha- and beta-glucose and their metabolic significance.

The Evolutionary Role of Sugar

Wrangham, R. W. (2009). Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. Basic Books.
Explores the role of glucose from starchy plants in human evolution and brain development.

Ungar, P. S. (2017). Evolution’s Bite: A Story of Teeth, Diet, and Human Origins. Princeton University Press.
Discusses early human adaptations to carbohydrate-rich diets and their influence on dental and digestive systems.

Perry, G. H., Dominy, N. J., Claw, K. G., et al. (2007). “Diet and the evolution of human amylase gene copy number variation.” Nature Genetics, 39(10), 1256–1260.
Demonstrates how increased amylase gene copies represent an evolutionary adaptation to starch-rich diets, enhancing human digestive efficiency and nutritional utilisation.

The Dual Role of Glucose: Alpha and Beta

Aiello, L. C., & Wheeler, P. (1995). “The expensive-tissue hypothesis: The brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution.” Current Anthropology, 36(2), 199–221.
Proposes glucose from dietary sources as essential for meeting the brain’s metabolic demands, underpinning the evolutionary trade-off between digestive efficiency and brain expansion.

Leonard, W. R., & Robertson, M. L. (1997). “Comparative primate energetics and hominid evolution.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 102(2), 265–281.
Quantifies the metabolic demands of the primate brain, highlighting glucose as the primary energy source essential for supporting human brain growth and function.

Cunnane, S. C., & Crawford, M. A. (2003). “Survival of the fattest: Fat babies were the key to evolution of the large human brain.” Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 136(1), 17–26.
Discusses the evolutionary significance of glucose as a reliable energy source for brain development, contrasting it with alternative energy sources such as ketosis.

Modern Refined Sugar and Its Consequences

Lustig, R. H. (2012). Fat Chance: Beating the Odds Against Sugar, Processed Food, Obesity, and Disease. Hudson Street Press.
Examines the metabolic disruptions caused by refined sugars and their role in obesity and diabetes.

Hall, K. D., Ayuketah, A., Brychta, R., et al. (2019). “Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain: An inpatient randomized controlled trial of ad libitum food intake.” Cell Metabolism, 30(1), 67–77.
Demonstrates how ultra-processed foods disrupt natural satiety mechanisms, leading to excessive calorie consumption and weight gain.

Stanhope, K. L., & Havel, P. J. (2008). “Fructose consumption: Potential mechanisms for its effects to increase visceral adiposity and induce dyslipidemia.” Current Opinion in Lipidology, 19(1), 16–24.
Examines how refined fructose intake contributes to metabolic disorders by increasing visceral adiposity and disrupting lipid metabolism, leading to conditions like dyslipidaemia and insulin resistance.

The Glycemic Index and Sugar Regulation

Jenkins, D. J., Wolever, T. M., Taylor, R. H., et al. (1981). “Glycemic index of foods: A physiological basis for carbohydrate exchange.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 34(3), 362–366.
Introduces the concept of the glycemic index, detailing how carbohydrate quality and digestion rate influence glucose absorption, insulin response, and systemic metabolic health.

Ludwig, D. S. (2002). “The glycemic index: Physiological mechanisms relating to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.” JAMA, 287(18), 2414–2423.
Examines how high-glycemic, refined carbohydrate foods disrupt glucose metabolism, contributing significantly to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases.

Slavin, J. L. (2005). “Dietary fibre and body weight.” Nutrition.
Examines how fibre mitigates sugar absorption and stabilises blood glucose levels.

The Trojan Horse Effect of Refined Sugars

Barnard, N. D. (2007). Dr. Neal Barnard’s Program for Reversing Diabetes. Rodale Books.
Explores how refined sugar, combined with fats, exacerbates insulin resistance and fat storage.

Lustig, R. H. (2012). Fat Chance.
Discusses how sugar’s interactions with fats create synergistic disruptions in metabolism.

Sugar as a Disruptor of Evolutionary Systems

Sonnenburg, E. D., & Sonnenburg, J. L. (2014). “Starving our microbial self: The deleterious consequences of a diet deficient in fibre.” Nature Reviews Microbiology, 12(4), 259–269.
Discusses how refined sugars, devoid of dietary fibre, negatively affect gut microbiota composition and function, disrupting microbial health and overall metabolic regulation.

David, L. A., Maurice, C. F., Carmody, R. N., et al. (2014). “Diet rapidly and reproducibly alters the human gut microbiome.” Nature, 505(7484), 559–563.
Demonstrates how refined dietary patterns rapidly alter gut microbiota composition, significantly impacting metabolic regulation and overall health.

Milton, K. (2000). “Hunter-gatherer diets—a different perspective.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 71(3), 665–667.
Contrasts ancestral dietary patterns rich in natural fibres and sugars with modern refined diets, highlighting evolutionary adaptations to consuming whole plant-based foods.

Fibre’s Role in Balancing Sugar Metabolism

Jenkins, D. J., Kendall, C. W., Augustin, L. S., et al. (2002). “Effect of a low-glycemic index or a high-cereal fibre diet on type 2 diabetes.” JAMA, 287(16), 2081–2089.
Highlights how high-fibre diets effectively moderate glycemic responses, reduce insulin resistance, and improve metabolic outcomes in type 2 diabetes.

Hu, F. B., Manson, J. E., Stampfer, M. J., et al. (2001). “Dietary fibre and glycemic load in relation to risk of type 2 diabetes in women.” Diabetes Care, 24(1), 45–50.
Demonstrates how dietary fibre mitigates the negative metabolic effects of refined sugars, significantly reducing the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Reynolds, A., Mann, J., Cummings, J., et al. (2019). “Carbohydrate quality and human health: A series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses.” The Lancet, 393(10170), 434–445.
Evaluates the critical role dietary fibre plays in enhancing metabolic health, moderating blood glucose responses, and reducing the risk of diseases associated with refined sugar consumption.

The Broader Implications of Sugar Consumption

Fung, J. (2016). The Obesity Code: Unlocking the Secrets of Weight Loss. Greystone Books.
Examines the societal and systemic effects of refined sugar on global health crises.

Moss, M. (2013). Salt Sugar Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us. Random House.
Investigates the role of the food industry in promoting sugar-laden diets.

Willett, W. C., & Ludwig, D. S. (2020). “Milk and health.” The New England Journal of Medicine, 382(7), 644–654.
Examines interactions between dietary trends, including sugar consumption from dairy, and their implications for systemic metabolic health and chronic disease outcomes.