Omegas 3 and 6 – The Fatty Acids

Foundational Texts on Lipids and Fatty Acids

Alberts, B., Johnson, A., & Lewis, J. et al. (2014). Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science.
Provides a detailed overview of lipid synthesis and the systemic roles of omega fatty acids in cellular functions.

Taiz, L., Zeiger, E., Møller, I. M., & Murphy, A. (2015). Plant Physiology and Development. Sinauer Associates.
Examines the synthesis of omega fatty acids in plants and their ecological importance.

Berg, J. M., Tymoczko, J. L., & Stryer, L. (2015). Biochemistry. W. H. Freeman.
Discusses the biochemical pathways of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and their roles in human health.

Biological Roles of Omega Fatty Acids

Simopoulos, A. P. (2002). “The importance of the omega-6/omega-3 essential fatty acid balance.” World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, 92, 1–22.
Discusses the critical roles of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in human evolution, emphasising their significant effects on inflammation regulation, cognitive function, and overall brain health.

Calder, P. C. (2015). “Functional roles of fatty acids and their effects on human health.” Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition, 39(1 Suppl), 18S–32S.
Discusses the critical functions of omega-3 fatty acids, highlighting their role in modulating inflammation, supporting immune function, and enhancing systemic health.

Kang, J. X., & Leaf, A. (1996). “Evidence that free polyunsaturated fatty acids modify Na⁺/K⁺-ATPase activity in cardiac myocytes.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 93(8), 3542–3546.
Highlights the essential cellular roles of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in regulating cardiac function and maintaining cardiovascular health.

Evolutionary Role of Omega Fatty Acids

Crawford, M. A., & Sinclair, A. J. (1972). “Nutritional influences in the evolution of mammalian brain structure.” World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics, 13, 20–38.
Discusses how dietary omega-3 fatty acids critically influenced brain structure and development in mammalian evolution, emphasising their significance in early human neurological adaptation.

Ungar, P. S. (2017). Evolution’s Bite: A Story of Teeth, Diet, and Human Origins. Princeton University Press.
Explores the role of omega-rich plants and marine sources in shaping human dietary patterns.

Omega-6 and Omega-3 Balance

Simopoulos, A. P. (2016). “An increase in the omega-6/omega-3 fatty acid ratio increases the risk for obesity.” Nutrients, 8(3), 128.
Examines how modern dietary imbalances, characterised by elevated omega-6 and reduced omega-3 fatty acid intake, contribute significantly to obesity and related chronic health issues.

Micha, R., Peñalvo, J. L., Cudhea, F., et al. (2017). “Association between dietary factors and mortality from heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.” JAMA, 317(9), 912–924.
Highlights how excessive omega-6 fatty acid consumption contributes to systemic inflammation, increasing risks for chronic diseases including heart disease, stroke, and type 2 diabetes.

Calder, P. C. (2020). “Omega-3 fatty acids and inflammatory processes.” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) – Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 1865(11), 158741.
Discusses the potent anti-inflammatory properties of omega-3 fatty acids, emphasising their essential role in balancing omega-6-driven inflammation and supporting systemic metabolic health.

Plant-Based Omega-3 Sources

Patterson, E., Wall, R., Fitzgerald, G. F., Ross, R. P., & Stanton, C. (2016). “Gut microbiota, the pharmabiotics they produce, and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids.” Progress in Lipid Research, 64, 116–125.
Explores the bioavailability and health benefits of omega-3 fatty acids derived from plant-based sources such as flaxseeds, walnuts, and algae, emphasising their interactions with gut microbiota and systemic health implications.

Conlon, M. A., & Bird, A. R. (2015). “The impact of diet and lifestyle on gut microbiota and human health.” Nutrients, 7(1), 17–44.
Highlights the beneficial role of plant-derived omega-3 fatty acids in supporting healthy gut microbiota composition and systemic metabolic health.

Marine vs. Plant-Based Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Brenna, J. T., Salem, N., Sinclair, A. J., & Cunnane, S. C. (2009). “Alpha-linolenic acid supplementation and conversion to n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in humans.” Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 80(2–3), 85–91.
Explores the metabolic conversion of plant-based omega-3 precursors, particularly alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), into biologically active omega-3 fatty acids (EPA and DHA), highlighting the efficacy and nutritional importance of plant-based omega-3 sources.

Calder, P. C. (2010). “Long-chain omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: Further evidence and insights.” Nutrition Research, 30(10), 655–665.
Evaluates the comparative efficacy of marine-derived versus plant-based omega-3 fatty acids in reducing cardiovascular risk factors, highlighting the health impacts of each dietary source.

Modern Health Challenges and Omega Deficiency

Innis, S. M. (2008). “Dietary omega-3 fatty acids and the developing brain.” Brain Research, 1237, 35–43.
Addresses the critical role of omega-3 fatty acids in brain development and highlights the neurological and cardiovascular risks associated with dietary omega-3 deficiency, especially in early life.

Satija, A., Bhupathiraju, S. N., Rimm, E. B., et al. (2016). “Plant-based dietary patterns and incidence of type 2 diabetes in US men and women: Results from three prospective cohort studies.” PLOS Medicine, 13(6), e1002039.
Highlights how plant-based dietary patterns, including omega-3-rich plant foods, significantly reduce systemic inflammation and lower the risk of developing type 2 diabetes.

Mozaffarian, D., & Wu, J. H. Y. (2011). “Omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: Effects on risk factors, molecular pathways, and clinical events.” Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 58(20), 2047–2067.
Explores how omega-3 fatty acids counteract inflammation, reduce triglycerides, and mitigate cardiovascular risks associated with saturated fat consumption.

Environmental and Ethical Considerations

Poore, J., & Nemecek, T. (2018). “Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers.” Science, 360(6392), 987–992.
Highlights the environmental advantages of sourcing omega-3 fatty acids from plant-based alternatives compared to marine-derived sources, advocating dietary shifts to enhance ecological sustainability.

Willett, W., Rockström, J., Loken, B., et al. (2019). “Food in the Anthropocene: The EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems.” The Lancet, 393(10170), 447–492.
Advocates adopting plant-based omega-3 fatty acid sources to significantly reduce the ecological footprint associated with marine-based omega fatty acid production, promoting dietary patterns that are both sustainable and healthy.

Springmann, M., Clark, M., Mason-D’Croz, D., et al. (2018). “Options for keeping the food system within environmental limits.” Nature, 562(7728), 519–525.
Evaluates the ecological sustainability of omega-3 fatty acid production methods, highlighting the significant environmental impacts associated with marine sources and promoting plant-based alternatives.