Iron – Nature’s Alloy

Foundational Texts on Iron Biology

Alberts, B., Johnson, A., & Lewis, J. et al. (2014). Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science.
Explores the cellular transport and storage mechanisms of iron, including its role in haemoglobin and enzymatic processes.

Gropper, S. S., Smith, J. L., & Carr, T. P. (2016). Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. Cengage Learning.
Discusses iron metabolism, absorption pathways, and systemic regulation.

The Role of Iron in Human Biology

Zimmermann, M. B., & Hurrell, R. F. (2007). “Nutritional iron deficiency.” The Lancet, 370(9586), 511–520.
Examines iron’s critical role in oxygen transport, enzymatic functions, and immune system regulation, highlighting the systemic impacts of iron deficiency.

Aisen, P., Enns, C., & Wessling-Resnick, M. (2001). “Chemistry and biology of eukaryotic iron metabolism.” International Journal of Biochemistry & Cell Biology, 33(10), 940–959.
Explores iron transport, storage, and regulation mechanisms in eukaryotic cells, emphasising transferrin-mediated delivery and ferritin-based storage for maintaining systemic iron homeostasis.

Trefts, E., Gannon, M., & Wasserman, D. H. (2016). “The liver and glucose homeostasis: Beyond an afterthought.” Cell Metabolism, 23(4), 661–671.
Explores the liver’s central role in metabolic regulation, including iron’s critical involvement in hepatic metabolic processes and glucose homeostasis.

Heme vs. Non-Heme Iron

McDowell, L. R. (2003). Minerals in Animal and Human Nutrition. Elsevier.
Compares the bioavailability of heme and non-heme iron, emphasising the advantages of plant-based sources.

Zimmermann, M. B., & Hurrell, R. F. (2007). “Nutritional iron deficiency.” The Lancet, 370(9586), 511–520.
Evaluates the bioavailability and effectiveness of non-heme iron absorption, highlighting how dietary components regulate its uptake and systemic utilisation.

Papanikolaou, G., & Pantopoulos, K. (2005). “Iron metabolism and toxicity.” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 202(2), 199–211.
Examines the metabolic pathways of iron, emphasising the oxidative stress, inflammation, and tissue damage linked to excessive consumption of heme iron.

Iron Absorption and Regulation

Cook, J. D., & Reddy, M. B. (2001). “Effect of ascorbic acid intake on non-heme iron absorption from a complete diet.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73(1), 93–98.
Explores how vitamin C significantly enhances the absorption of non-heme iron from dietary sources, improving overall iron bioavailability.

Allen, L. H. (2009). “How common is vitamin B12 deficiency?” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 89(2), 693S–696S.
Examines the prevalence of vitamin B12 deficiency, linking it to modern dietary patterns and associated micronutrient imbalances affecting iron absorption and systemic health.

Beard, J. L., & Dawson, H. (1997). “Iron and its impact on human health.” The Journal of Nutrition, 127(4), 603S–607S.
Discusses regulatory pathways governing iron absorption and metabolism, highlighting iron’s critical role in systemic health and the consequences of imbalance.

Iron and Oxidative Stress

Papanikolaou, G., & Pantopoulos, K. (2005). “Iron metabolism and toxicity.” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 202(2), 199–211.
Discusses the oxidative stress and tissue damage resulting from excess heme iron consumption, highlighting the mechanisms underlying iron-related toxicity.

Fleming, R. E., & Ponka, P. (2012). “Iron overload in human disease.” The New England Journal of Medicine, 366(4), 348–359.
Examines the health consequences of iron overload, focusing on oxidative stress, tissue damage, and the development of chronic diseases associated with excess iron accumulation.

Halliwell, B. & Gutteridge, J. M. (1999). Free Radicals in Biology and Medicine. Oxford University Press.
Discusses the role of free radicals in iron-related oxidative stress and their contribution to chronic diseases.

Fibre’s Role in Iron Regulation

Slavin, J. L. (2005). “Dietary fibre and body weight.” Nutrition, 21(3), 411–418.
Discusses how dietary fibre influences nutrient absorption, including modulating iron uptake, and contributes to reduced oxidative stress and improved systemic health outcomes.

Reynolds, A., Mann, J., Cummings, J., et al. (2019). “Carbohydrate quality and human health: A series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses.” The Lancet, 393(10170), 434–445.
Examines the role of dietary fibre in regulating iron absorption and mitigating oxidative stress, improving metabolic health and reducing risks associated with chronic disease.

Iron and Modern Health Challenges

O’Keefe, S. J., Li, J. V., Lahti, L., et al. (2015). “Fat, fibre, and cancer risk in African Americans and rural Africans.” Nature Communications, 6, 6342.
Examines the relationship between Western dietary patterns, including high heme iron consumption, and elevated colorectal cancer risk, highlighting dietary fibre’s protective effects.

Micha, R., Wallace, S. K., & Mozaffarian, D. (2010). “Red and processed meat consumption and risk of incident coronary heart disease, stroke, and diabetes mellitus.” Circulation, 121(21), 2271–2283.
Highlights the association between processed meat consumption, rich in heme iron, and increased risks of cardiometabolic diseases, including cardiovascular disease and diabetes.

Hu, F. B., & Willett, W. C. (2002). “Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease.” JAMA, 288(20), 2569–2578.
Discusses how diets high in heme iron from animal sources contribute significantly to increased risk of cardiovascular disease and systemic inflammation.

Plant-Based Iron Sources

Conlon, M. A., & Bird, A. R. (2015). “The impact of diet and lifestyle on gut microbiota and human health.” Nutrients, 7(1), 17–44.
Highlights the benefits of plant-derived, non-heme iron sources, emphasising their role in healthier gut microbiota and reduced disease risk compared to animal-derived heme iron.

Lanou, A. J. & Castleman, M. (2009). Building Bone Vitality: A Revolutionary Diet Plan to Prevent Bone Loss and Reverse Osteoporosis. McGraw Hill Professional.
Discusses plant-based diets as a sustainable source of essential minerals, including iron.

Environmental and Ethical Considerations

Poore, J., & Nemecek, T. (2018). “Reducing food’s environmental impacts through producers and consumers.” Science, 360(6392), 987–992.
Highlights the environmental benefits of reducing iron-rich animal products, advocating dietary shifts toward more sustainable plant-based sources to minimise ecological impacts.

Springmann, M., Clark, M., Mason-D’Croz, D., et al. (2018). “Options for keeping the food system within environmental limits.” Nature, 562(7728), 519–525.
Advocates sustainable dietary practices, emphasising reduced reliance on animal-derived iron sources in favour of plant-based alternatives to decrease environmental impact.