Fullness vs. Heaviness – Understanding the Difference

Foundational Texts on Satiety and Digestive Physiology

Gropper, S. S., Smith, J. L., & Carr, T. P. (2016). Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism. Cengage Learning.
Explores the physiological mechanisms of satiety and nutrient digestion.

Guyton, A. C. & Hall, J. E. (2016). Textbook of Medical Physiology. Elsevier.
Provides an in-depth look at digestive processes and satiety signalling.

Mayer, E. A. (2016). The Mind-Gut Connection. Harper Wave.
Discusses the role of the gut-brain axis in regulating satiety and digestive comfort.

Fibre and Satiety Mechanisms

Rolls, B. J. & Bell, E. A. (1999). “Intake of fat and sugar, and their association with satiety.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition.
Examines how different macronutrients, particularly fibre, influence satiety and food intake.

Slavin, J. L. (2005). “Dietary fibre and body weight regulation.” Nutrition, 21(3), 411–418.
Highlights how dietary fibre promotes fullness by slowing digestion, enhancing gastric distension, and stabilising energy release, contributing to improved appetite control and weight regulation.

Anderson, J. W., Baird, P., Davis, R. H., et al. (2009). “Health benefits of dietary fibre.” Nutrition Reviews, 67(4), 188–205.
Explores fibre’s role in increasing satiety by slowing digestion, promoting gut hormone release, and enhancing gastric distension, thereby preventing overconsumption and supporting weight management.

Digestive Effort and Perceived Heaviness

Holt, S. H., Miller, J. C., Petocz, P., et al. (1995). “A satiety index of common foods.” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 49(9), 675–690.
Ranks foods based on their ability to produce feelings of fullness, comparing plant- and animal-based options, and highlighting the role of fibre and macronutrient composition in satiety regulation.

Blundell, J. E., Caudwell, P., Miles, A., et al. (2010). “Appetite control: Methodological aspects of the evaluation of foods.” Obesity Reviews, 11(3), 251–270.
Discusses how the physical and metabolic effort required to digest different foods influences perceptions of fullness and heaviness, highlighting the role of fibre, macronutrient composition, and energy density in appetite regulation.

Hiiemae, K., & Palmer, J. B. (2003). “Tongue movements in feeding and speech.” Critical Reviews in Oral Biology & Medicine, 14(6), 413–429.
Explores the mechanical aspects of mastication, detailing how coordinated tongue movements contribute to food breakdown, bolus formation, and overall digestive efficiency.

Hunger Hormones and Satiety Signalling

Schwartz, M. W., Seeley, R. J., Zeltser, L. M., et al. (2017). “Insulin and leptin in the control of energy balance.” Cell Metabolism, 26(2), 312–327.
Discusses how leptin and insulin regulate hunger and fullness through feedback loops, highlighting their roles in energy homeostasis, appetite suppression, and metabolic adaptation.

Frost, G., Sleeth, M. L., Sahuri-Arisoylu, M., et al. (2014). “The short-chain fatty acid acetate reduces appetite via a central homeostatic mechanism.” Nature Communications, 5, 3611.
Examines how microbial byproducts like short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), particularly acetate, influence satiety signals by modulating central homeostatic mechanisms and appetite regulation.

Cryan, J. F., & Dinan, T. G. (2012). “Mind-altering microorganisms: The impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(10), 701–712.
Highlights the role of gut microbiota in modulating hunger and satiety hormones, demonstrating how microbial interactions influence appetite regulation, energy balance, and overall metabolic health.

Fibre and Gut Microbiota in Satiety Regulation

Sonnenburg, E. D., & Sonnenburg, J. L. (2014). “Starving our microbial self: The deleterious consequences of a diet deficient in fibre.” Nature Reviews Microbiology, 12(10), 623–634.
Discusses how dietary fibre supports gut microbial diversity and satiety regulation, highlighting the negative consequences of fibre deficiency on microbiota composition, metabolic health, and appetite control.

Flint, H. J., Scott, K. P., Duncan, S. H., et al. (2012). “Microbial degradation of complex carbohydrates in the gut.” Gut Microbes, 3(4), 289–306.
Explores how fibre fermentation by gut bacteria produces short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), which influence appetite regulation and energy balance through gut-brain signalling and metabolic pathways.

Turnbaugh, P. J., Ley, R. E., Hamady, M., et al. (2007). “The human microbiome project: Exploring the microbial part of ourselves.” Nature, 449(7164), 804–810.
Highlights how modern diets disrupt gut microbiota composition, impairing natural satiety mechanisms by altering microbial diversity, short-chain fatty acid production, and gut-brain signalling.

Modern Diets and Satiety Challenges

Hall, K. D., Ayuketah, A., Brychta, R., et al. (2019). “Ultra-processed diets cause excess calorie intake and weight gain.” Cell Metabolism, 30(1), 67–77.
Demonstrates how ultra-processed foods bypass natural satiety mechanisms, leading to increased calorie intake, reduced hunger regulation, and a higher risk of overeating and weight gain.

Steele, E. M., Baraldi, L. G., Louzada, M. L., et al. (2016). “Ultra-processed foods and health: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” Public Health Nutrition, 19(11), 1985–2004.
Examines how ultra-processed foods contribute to hunger dysregulation and caloric overconsumption by altering satiety signalling, increasing energy density, and disrupting metabolic homeostasis.

Ludwig, D. S. & Willett, W. C. (2013). “Dairy foods and obesity: Perspectives from evolutionary biology.” JAMA Pediatrics.
Discusses how low-satiety-processed foods disrupt hunger and fullness cues.

Restoring Natural Satiety Mechanisms

Fung, J. (2016). The Obesity Code: Unlocking the Secrets of Weight Loss. Greystone Books.
Explores strategies to restore natural satiety through intermittent fasting and whole-food diets.

Reynolds, A., Mann, J., Cummings, J., et al. (2019). “Carbohydrate quality and human health: A series of systematic reviews and meta-analyses.” The Lancet, 393(10170), 434–445.
Highlights the role of whole, fibre-rich foods in stabilising hunger and promoting satiety by regulating digestion, slowing glucose absorption, and enhancing gut microbiota-driven appetite control.

Katz, D. L., Meller, S., Battista, R., et al. (2014). “Can we say what diet is best for health?” Annual Review of Public Health, 35, 83–103.
Discusses how dietary quality influences hunger regulation and energy balance, highlighting the role of whole, nutrient-dense foods in maintaining satiety, metabolic stability, and long-term health outcomes.