Bile – The Fluid of Digestion

Foundational Texts on Digestive Physiology

Guyton, A. C. & Hall, J. E. (2016). Textbook of Medical Physiology. Elsevier.
Comprehensive coverage of bile composition, production, and its role in lipid digestion and nutrient absorption.

Furness, J. B. (2006). The Enteric Nervous System. Blackwell Publishing.
Explores the coordination between bile production, gut motility, and nutrient assimilation.

Carey, M. C. & Small, D. M. (1978). “The physical chemistry of cholesterol solubility in bile: The hydrophilic-hydrophobic balance of bile salts.” New England Journal of Medicine. 298(17), 873–879.
Describes bile salts’ amphipathic nature and their role in fat emulsification.

Bile Composition and Emulsifying Action

Russell, D. W. (2003). “The enzymes, regulation, and genetics of bile acid synthesis.” Annual Review of Biochemistry, 72, 137–174.
Outlines the metabolic pathways of bile acid production and their systemic importance.

Carey, M. C., Small, D. M., & Bliss, C. M. (1983). “Lipid digestion and absorption.” Annual Review of Physiology, 45, 651–677.
Details the process of micelle formation and fat absorption mediated by bile acids.

Fibre and Bile Interaction

Jenkins, D. J., Kendall, C. W., Axelsen, M., et al. (2000). “Dietary fibre, bile acids, and cholesterol metabolism.” Lipids, 35(5), 529–533.
Discusses how soluble fibre binds bile acids, reducing cholesterol reabsorption and promoting excretion.

Anderson, J. W., Spencer, D. B., & Hamilton, C. C. (1990). “Dietary fibre and lipid metabolism: The role of bile acid excretion.” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 51(5), 778–785.
Highlights fibre’s impact on bile acid recycling and cholesterol regulation.

Marlett, J. A., McBurney, M. I., & Slavin, J. L. (2002). “Health implications of dietary fibre.” Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 102(7), 993-1000.
Examines fibre’s role in gut health, bile acid clearance, and systemic detoxification.

Gut Microbiota and Bile Acid Metabolism

Ridlon, J. M., Kang, D. J., & Hylemon, P. B. (2006). “Bile salt biotransformations by human intestinal bacteria.” Journal of Lipid Research.
Explores the role of gut bacteria in bile acid metabolism and systemic health.

Wahlström, A., Sayin, S. I., Marschall, H. U., & Bäckhed, F. (2016). “Intestinal crosstalk between bile acids and microbiota and its impact on host metabolism.” Cell Metabolism, 24(1), 41–50.
Investigates the dynamic relationship between bile acids and gut microbiota in regulating metabolic health.

Duboc, H., Rajca, S., Rainteau, D., et al. (2013). “Connecting dysbiosis, bile-acid dysmetabolism, and gut inflammation in inflammatory bowel diseases.” Gut, 62(4), 531–539.
Highlights the connection between bile acid imbalances and gut health issues.

Cholesterol Regulation and Bile Recycling

Lefebvre, P., Cariou, B., & Lien, F. et al. (2009). “Role of bile acids and bile acid receptors in metabolic regulation.” Physiological Reviews, 89(1), 147–191.
Provides an overview of bile’s role in cholesterol homeostasis via the FXR and TGR5 pathways.

Brown, M. S. & Goldstein, J. L. (1986). “A receptor-mediated pathway for cholesterol homeostasis.” Science, 232(4746), 34–47.
Explains how bile acid synthesis affects LDL cholesterol levels and systemic balance.

Kullak-Ublick, G. A., Stieger, B., & Meier, P. J. (2004). “Enterohepatic bile salt transporters in normal physiology and liver disease.” Gastroenterology, 126(1), 322–342.
Details the mechanisms of bile recycling and its implications for cholesterol regulation.

Evolutionary Context of Bile

Ungar, P. S. (2012). Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable. Oxford University Press.
Discusses bile’s evolutionary role in fat digestion as humans adapted to more diverse diets.

Wrangham, R. W. (2009). Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. Basic Books.
Explores how increased fat consumption through cooking drove bile system adaptations.

Sherwood, L., Klandorf, H., & Yancey, P. H. (2015). Animal Physiology: From Genes to Organisms. Brooks/Cole.
Compares bile function across species, emphasising its evolutionary importance.

Clinical Implications of Bile Dysregulation

Di Ciaula, A., Garruti, G., Lunardi Baccetto, R., et al. (2017). “Bile acid physiology.” Annals of Hepatology, 16(Suppl. 1), s4–s14.
Discusses bile dysregulation’s role in gallstones, metabolic disease, and inflammation.

Arab, J. P., Karpen, S. J., Arrese, M., et al. (2017). “Bile acid metabolism and signalling in liver disease.” Journal of Hepatology, 67(3), 619–631.
Reviews the metabolism and signalling pathways of bile acids, highlighting their roles in liver health, disease mechanisms, and systemic metabolic regulation.

Bile, Fibre, and Systemic Health

Houten, S. M., Watanabe, M., & Auwerx, J. (2006). “Endocrine functions of bile acids.” The EMBO Journal, 25(7), 1419–1425.
Describes how bile acids act as signalling molecules influencing glucose, lipid metabolism, and systemic metabolic regulation.

Bile and Gut Barrier Protection

Distrutti, E., Santucci, L., Cipriani, S., et al. (2015). “Bile acid activated receptors are targets for regulation of integrity of gastrointestinal mucosa.” Journal of Gastroenterology, 50(7), 707–719.
This review explores how bile acids act as signalling molecules through specific receptors, to maintain intestinal integrity and protect against mucosal injury.

Turnbaugh, P. J., Ley, R. E., Mahowald, M. A., et al. (2006). “An obesity-associated gut microbiome with increased capacity for energy harvest.” Nature, 444(7122), 1027–1031.
Links bile acid metabolism, gut microbiota imbalances, and metabolic disorders.

Evolutionary Engineering of Bile

Vogel, V., & Sheetz, M. (2006). “Local force and geometry sensing regulate cell functions.” Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology, 7(4), 265–275.
Examines how physical forces, including those influenced by bile acids and dietary fibre, regulate cellular functions through mechanotransduction, optimising digestive efficiency and systemic health.

Aiello, L. C., & Wheeler, P. (1995). “The expensive-tissue hypothesis: The brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution.” Current Anthropology, 36(2), 199–221.
Explores the metabolic adaptations linking efficient use of dietary fats and bile function to the evolutionary balance between brain size and digestive tract reduction.