Amylase – The Hidden Catalyst of Human Evolution

Foundational Texts on Evolutionary Biology and Physiology

Darwin, C. (1859). On the Origin of Species. John Murray.
Establishes the principles of natural selection, foundational for understanding evolutionary adaptations like AMY1 amplification.

Alberts, B., Johnson, A., & Lewis, J. et al. (2014). Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland Science.
Provides insights into enzyme function, gene expression, and metabolic adaptations relevant to amylase evolution.

Lewin, R. (2004). Principles of Evolutionary Biology. Blackwell Science.
Explores evolutionary pressures on biological systems, offering context for the development of amylase.

Maynard Smith, J. & Szathmáry, E. (1995). The Major Transitions in Evolution. Oxford University Press.
Discusses evolutionary leaps, including adaptations to starch-based diets.

The Evolution of Human Digestion and Starch Utilisation

Perry, G. H., Dominy, N. J., Claw, K. G., et al. (2007). “Diet and the evolution of human amylase gene copy number variation.” Nature Genetics, 39(10), 1256–1260.
Foundational study linking AMY1 amplification to starch-heavy diets in human evolution.

Wrangham, R. W. (2009). Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. Basic Books.
Explores how cooking enhanced starch digestibility and influenced human evolutionary physiology.

Ungar, P. S. (2007). Evolution of the Human Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable. Oxford University Press.
Examines the dietary evolution of early humans, focusing on starch-rich plants.

Zohary, D., Hopf, M., & Weiss, E. (2012). Domestication of Plants in the Old World. Oxford University Press.
Highlights the dietary shifts in early human societies, emphasising the role of tuber-based diets.

Genetic Amplification of AMY1 and Starch Digestion

Perry, G. H., Dominy, N. J., Claw, K. G., et al. (2007). “Diet and the evolution of human amylase gene copy number variation.” Nature Genetics, 39(10), 1256–1260.
Provides genetic evidence for increased AMY1 copy numbers in populations with starch-heavy diets.

Hancock, A. M., Witonsky, D. B., Ehler, E., Alkorta-Aranburu, G., Beall, C., Gebremedhin, A., Sukernik, R., Utermann, G., Pritchard, J., Coop, G., & Di Rienzo, A. (2010). “Human adaptations to diet, subsistence, and ecoregion are due to subtle shifts in allele frequency.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(Suppl. 2), 8924–8930.

Examines genetic adaptations in human populations related to diet and environment, highlighting allele frequency variations associated with dietary shifts, including amylase gene copy number variation.

The Energy Advantage of Glucose

Aiello, L. C. & Wheeler, P. (1995). “The expensive-tissue hypothesis: The brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution.” Current Anthropology, 36(2), 199–221.
Proposes a link between metabolic trade-offs, brain growth, and glucose as an essential energy source.

Leonard, W. R. & Robertson, M. L. (1997). “Comparative primate energetics and hominid evolution.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 102(2), 265–281.
Quantifies the energy demands of the human brain, emphasising glucose’s role in meeting these demands.

Cunnane, S. C. & Crawford, M. A. (2003). “Survival of the fattest: Fat babies were the key to evolution of the large human brain.” Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, 136(1), 17–26.
Highlights glucose as a stable energy source for brain development, contrasting with ketosis.

Amylase and the Agricultural Revolution

Wrangham, R. W. (2009). Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human. Basic Books.
Discusses the synergistic effects of cooking and amylase adaptation in improving calorie extraction from starch.

Zohary, D., Hopf, M., & Weiss, E. (2012). Domestication of Plants in the Old World. Oxford University Press.
Links the domestication of starch-rich crops to the rise of agricultural societies.

The Gut-Brain Axis and Fibre’s Evolutionary Role

Mayer, E. A. (2016). The Mind-Gut Connection. Harper Wave.
Highlights the relationship between gut microbiota, fibre, and neurological health, emphasising SCFAs’ role in brain function.

Sonnenburg, E. D. & Sonnenburg, J. L. (2014). “Starving our microbial self: The deleterious consequences of a diet deficient in fibre.” Nature Reviews Microbiology, 12(4), 259–269.
Discusses how fibre supports gut microbiota and influences amylase activity.

Flint, H. J., Scott, K. P., & Duncan, S. H. et al. (2012). “Microbial degradation of complex carbohydrates in the gut.” Gut Microbes, 3(4), 289–306.
Connects fibre fermentation to gut-brain signalling and energy regulation.

Comparative Digestive Adaptations

Aiello, L. C. & Wheeler, P. (1995). “The expensive-tissue hypothesis: The brain and the digestive system in human and primate evolution.” Current Anthropology, 36(2), 199–221.
Discusses metabolic trade-offs that favoured starch-based diets.

Cooperation and Cultural Evolution

Sterelny, K. (2012). The Evolved Apprentice: How Evolution Made Humans Unique. MIT Press.
Examines how cooperative behaviours in foraging and food preparation amplified the evolutionary importance of starch-rich foods.

Hill, K. & Kaplan, H. (1999). “Life history traits in humans: Implications for human evolution.” Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 42, 397–430.
Highlights the connection between resource sharing, dietary flexibility, and social development.

Archaeological Evidence of Starch Consumption

Buckley, M. & Steele, T. E. (2018). “The emergence of starch consumption in early human evolution.” Journal of Archaeological Science, 97, 155–163.
Details archaeological evidence of starch residues on tools used by early humans.

Hardy, K., Brand-Miller, J., Brown, K. D., et al. (2015). “Plant-based foods and dietary adaptations in early hominins.” Nature, 528(7581), 226–229.
Explores how starchy plants supported human brain development and societal growth.